Byzantine Iconography

The icon is one of the defining elements of Orthodox Christian practice, and Byzantine iconography is the tradition that gave the Orthodox world its sacred imagery. For more than a thousand years, the artists of the Byzantine Empire and its successors have produced icons of Christ, the Virgin Mary, the saints, and the great feasts of the church, working within a set of inherited types, techniques, and theological principles that give the tradition its remarkable unity and its continuing vitality.

This exploration of Byzantine iconography traces the development of the tradition from its late Roman origins through the post-Iconoclastic flowering of the Macedonian and Palaiologan periods, and onward into the modern Orthodox world. It examines the great icon types, the theological principles that govern them, the techniques used to create them, and the role they play in Orthodox Christian life.

The Theology of the Icon

Image and Prototype

The theological foundation of Byzantine iconography was articulated in the wake of the Iconoclast controversy, most famously by John of Damascus, Theodore the Studite, and the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. The core principle is that the icon is venerated, not worshipped, and that the veneration passes from the image to the prototype it represents.

The defense of icons drew on a sophisticated theology of image and likeness. Christian anthropology, the doctrine of the human person, had always held that human beings are made in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1:26). The Incarnation, the Christian doctrine that the eternal Son of God became truly human in Jesus Christ, completed this image relationship: if God had become human, then God could be depicted in human form, and the depiction was not idolatry but a legitimate extension of the doctrine of the Incarnation.

The Iconoclast position, by contrast, had argued that the infinite, invisible God could not be represented in finite, visible form. To depict Christ was either to confine him to his created humanity (a kind of Nestorianism) or to confuse his divine and human natures (a kind of Monophysitism). The Iconodule response was to distinguish between the essence of God, which is unrepresentable, and the person of Christ, who is truly human as well as truly divine. The icon depicts the human face of Christ, the form in which he revealed himself, and to venerate the icon is to venerate the person depicted.

Veneration and Worship

The distinction between veneration and worship was a central element of the Iconodule theology. Worship, in the strict sense, was reserved for God alone, and could be offered only to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, the one God in three persons. Veneration, a lower form of honor, could be offered to icons, since the veneration passed to the prototype. The cult of the saints, including the veneration of their relics and their icons, was understood as a communion with the saints in the heavenly church, an extension of the communion of saints in the Creed.

This distinction, which may seem subtle to modern ears, was the subject of intense controversy in the eighth and ninth centuries, and it has remained a central element of Orthodox Christian practice ever since. The Orthodox faithful venerate icons, kissing them, burning incense before them, and carrying them in procession, but they worship God alone.

The Great Icon Types

The Pantokrator

The most important icon type in all of Byzantine art is the Christ Pantokrator, the “Ruler of All.” The Pantokrator is depicted as a half-length figure of Christ, with the right hand raised in blessing and the left hand holding a closed Gospel book. The face is bearded, with long hair, and the expression is serious, even severe. The Pantokrator is the central image of the Orthodox church, placed in the central dome, and it represents Christ as the cosmic ruler, the judge of the world, and the source of all blessing.

The most famous example of the Pantokrator is the great mosaic in the dome of the Hagia Sophia, although that image is unfortunately lost. The most famous surviving example is the apse mosaic at Daphni, dating to the late eleventh century, and the great Pantokator of the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, which is no longer in existence. The Pantokrator is also a central element of Orthodox personal devotion, and almost every Orthodox home has an icon of the Pantokrator in a place of honor.

The Theotokos

The Virgin Mary, the Theotokos or “God-bearer,” is the second most important subject of Byzantine iconography. The Virgin is depicted in several distinct types, each with its own theological meaning and its own history.

The most important Marian type is the Hodegetria, “She who shows the Way.” The Hodegetria depicts the Virgin holding the Christ child on her left arm and gesturing toward him with her right hand. The original of the Hodegetria, traditionally attributed to St. Luke, was the most venerated icon in Constantinople and was carried in procession at the start of every imperial campaign.

The second most important Marian type is the Eleousa, “Showing tenderness.” The Eleousa depicts the Virgin holding the Christ child close, with the two faces touching in a gesture of tender affection. The type was especially popular in the Palaiologan period, and it includes some of the most emotionally moving images in Byzantine art. The most famous example is the Virgin of Vladimir, the icon that was carried around the walls of Moscow in 1395 to protect the city from Tamerlane.

The third major Marian type is the Glykophilousa, “Sweet-kissing,” a variation of the Eleousa in which the Christ child embraces the Virgin’s cheek. The Orans, with the Virgin depicted in a praying posture, was used especially in the apse mosaics of Orthodox churches, and the Platytera, with the Virgin shown frontally with arms raised and Christ in a medallion on her chest, was used in the apse of the church to represent the Incarnation.

The Saints

The saints of the Byzantine church were depicted in icons according to inherited types that developed over centuries. The military saints, including St. George, St. Demetrios, and St. Theodore Stratelates, were depicted as young men in military dress, often with a spear or sword, sometimes on horseback. The healing saints, including St. Cosmas and St. Damian, were depicted in physician’s robes, holding medical instruments. The monastic saints, including St. Anthony, St. Sabas, and St. Theodosios, were depicted in monastic habit, holding a scroll or a Gospel book.

The archangels, especially Michael and Gabriel, were depicted in military dress, with wings, and carrying a spear and a shield. The archangel Michael, in particular, was venerated as the protector of the Christian people, the leader of the heavenly host against the powers of darkness, and the psychopomp who conducted the souls of the dead to the afterlife. The icon of the Archangel Michael was one of the most venerated in the Byzantine church.

The Techniques of Icon Painting

Materials and Support

Byzantine icons were painted on wooden panels, typically made of cypress, pine, or other local woods. The panel was prepared with a layer of gesso, a mixture of chalk, glue, and sometimes animal hair, which was applied in multiple layers and sanded smooth. On this prepared surface, the artist drew the cartoon, often in red or brown paint, and then applied the colors.

The pigments used in Byzantine icon painting included earth colors, mineral colors, and some organic dyes. The most important pigments were red ochre, yellow ochre, terre verte (a green earth), cinnabar (a red mineral), lapis lazuli (an expensive blue), and various greens, blues, and browns. Gold leaf was applied to the background, the haloes, and sometimes to the garments of the figures, giving the icon its characteristic luminous quality.

Egg Tempera

The principal painting medium of Byzantine icons was egg tempera, a mixture of egg yolk, water, and pigment. The egg yolk served as a binder, holding the pigment to the panel, and it produced a fast-drying, durable surface. The technique required great skill, since the artist had to work quickly and decisively, and corrections were difficult.

The technique of egg tempera was inherited from the late Roman tradition, and it was used throughout the Byzantine world. The technique continued in use in the Orthodox churches of the post-Byzantine period, and it is still used by icon painters today, who regard the technique as an essential element of the tradition.

The Gold Ground

The gold ground was the most distinctive feature of Byzantine icon painting. The background of the icon, and sometimes the haloes and the garments, were covered with gold leaf, applied to a thin layer of red bole (a clay) and burnished with an agate or tooth-shaped stone. The gold ground represented the divine light, the uncreated glory of God, in which the figures of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints were revealed. The gold ground also produced a luminous effect, since the gold reflected the light and made the icon glow from within.

The Major Periods of Byzantine Icon Painting

The Post-Iconoclastic Revival

The first great age of Byzantine icon painting was the post-Iconoclastic revival of the ninth and tenth centuries, the age of the Macedonian dynasty. The Iconoclast controversy had effectively ended the production of figurative icons, and the restoration of icons in 843 inaugurated a major program of creating new icons and of restoring or replacing those that had been destroyed.

The Macedonian period icons are technically refined and spiritually intense, with figures depicted against a deep gold ground, in an increasingly hieratic style. The most famous surviving example is the Virgin of Vladimir, an icon traditionally dated to the twelfth century but possibly earlier, which was brought to Russia in the twelfth century and which has been venerated as a wonder-working icon ever since.

The Komnenian Period

The Komnenian period, the eleventh and twelfth centuries, saw a further development of the Byzantine icon tradition, with the introduction of more emotional and more humanized figures. The Komnenian icons are notable for their refined drawing, their sophisticated use of color, and their delicate modeling of faces. The most famous example is the Annunciation icon in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, traditionally attributed to the master painter Theophanes the Greek, although this attribution is debated.

The Palaiologan Renaissance

The last great age of Byzantine icon painting was the Palaiologan period, the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which produced some of the most refined and most moving icons in the tradition. The Palaiologan icons are notable for their combination of classical naturalism, emotional expressiveness, and refined technique. The most famous Palaiologan icon painters, including Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Dionysius, worked in Russia, but the icons they produced were based on Byzantine models.

The Palaiologan style of icon painting was transmitted to Russia after the fall of Constantinople, and it became the foundation of the Russian icon tradition. The most famous Russian icon, the Trinity of Andrei Rublev, is a Palaiologan-style image of the three angels at Mamre, treated as a type of the Trinity. The Trinity of Rublev is one of the supreme masterpieces of the icon tradition and a direct continuation of the Byzantine inheritance.

The Role of the Icon in Orthodox Life

Personal Devotion

The icon is central to Orthodox Christian life. The Orthodox faithful venerate icons in their homes, where a special corner is set aside for the icon corner or “beautiful corner.” The icon corner typically contains icons of Christ, the Virgin, and the patron saint of the family, along with a vigil lamp, a Gospel book, and other devotional items. Family prayer is conducted before the icon corner, and the most important moments of family life are sanctified by the icons.

In church, the iconostasis divides the sanctuary from the nave, and the icons on the screen mark off the holy place while allowing the worshipper to see the principal images. The icon of the patron saint is often venerated with particular devotion, and the icon of the Theotokos is venerated by Orthodox faithful throughout the world.

Processions and Liturgy

Icons are carried in procession on the great feasts of the Orthodox calendar. The icon of the Theotokos, especially the Hodegetria, was carried in procession at the start of every imperial campaign in Byzantium, and the icon of the patron saint of a city was carried around the walls in times of crisis. The practice continues today, especially in Greece, Russia, and the Slavic Orthodox world.

Icons also play a central role in the Orthodox liturgy. The iconostasis is the visual focus of the church, and the icons are censed, kissed, and venerated during the Divine Liturgy. The readings of the day are illustrated by icons of the corresponding feast, and the priest often uses icons as a focus of prayer during the services.

Conclusion

Byzantine iconography is one of the great traditions of Christian sacred art. For more than a thousand years, the artists of the Byzantine world and its successors have produced icons of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints, working within a set of inherited types, techniques, and theological principles that have given the tradition its remarkable unity and its continuing vitality. The icon is not merely a work of art but a window into the heavenly kingdom, a point of encounter between the worshipper and the divine. To study Byzantine iconography is to study one of the most profound and most beautiful traditions in the history of Christian art.

Related Articles

• Byzantine Art and Architecture — the broader context
• Byzantine Mosaics — the monumental counterpart of icons
• The Gold Ground Technique in Byzantine Art — the signature of Byzantine sacred painting
• The Icon of the Virgin Hodegetria — the most venerated icon
• Byzantine Icon Veneration and Theology — the theology of the icon
• Byzantine Iconoclasm — the controversy that defined the icon
• The Archangel Michael in Byzantine Art — the warrior of God
• Hagia Sophia: Architecture and Meaning — the supreme architectural setting