Byzantine Culture

History · Guide

Byzantine Clothing and Fashion

Explore Byzantine clothing and fashion, from the silks of the imperial court to the simple tunics of the peasantry. Learn about the social signals, the sumptuary laws, and the legacy of Byzantine dress.

Byzantine clothing was both a practical necessity and a complex system of social signals. From the elaborate silk robes of the emperor and the imperial family to the simple woolen tunics of the peasantry, the clothes the Byzantines wore communicated their rank, their profession, their marital status, and their religious affiliation. The elaborate sumptuary laws of the empire regulated who could wear what, and the production of the most prestigious garments, especially silk, was a royal monopoly. The Byzantine tradition of dress influenced the fashion of the Orthodox world for centuries, and it has left its mark on the religious vestments of the Eastern churches to this day.

This exploration of Byzantine clothing and fashion examines the principal garments of the Byzantine wardrobe, the sumptuary laws that regulated dress, the materials and techniques of Byzantine textile production, and the legacy of Byzantine dress in the modern world.

The Imperial Wardrobe

The Emperor’s Robes

The emperor’s clothing was the most elaborate in the Byzantine world, and it was carefully regulated by court protocol. The imperial wardrobe included several distinct costumes for different occasions, including the chlamys, the sagion, the divetesion, and the loros, each of which was worn with specific regalia and for specific occasions.

The chlamys was a large rectangular cloak, fastened at the right shoulder with a brooch, which was the most common imperial garment. The chlamys was made of silk, often embroidered with gold and gems, and it was reserved for the emperor and the most senior members of the imperial family. The sagion, a similar garment, was worn by the emperor on military occasions, and it often bore the insignia of the imperial army.

The divetesion was the most formal imperial garment, worn on the most solemn occasions, especially in the church. The divetesion was a long, close-fitting tunic of silk, heavily embroidered with gold and precious stones, and it was a clear symbol of the imperial dignity. The loros was a long, narrow strip of silk, embroidered with gold and gems, which was worn draped around the body in a distinctive pattern. The loros was the most exclusive of the imperial garments, and it was worn only by the emperor and a very few members of the imperial family.

The imperial garments were not merely decorative. They were symbolic representations of the imperial office, and they were the subject of elaborate theological interpretations. The emperor, in his vestments, was understood to be the image of Christ on earth, and the imperial garments were compared to the vestments of the Old Testament high priest. The vestments of the emperor in the liturgy, in particular, were modeled on the vestments of the priests, and they signified the emperor’s role as both ruler and priest.

The Imperial Family

The members of the imperial family, including the empress, the princes, and the princesses, also wore elaborate clothing, although their garments were less exclusive than those of the emperor. The empress wore a long, flowing tunic of silk, often with a long train, and she was distinguished by her crown, her jewelry, and her personal attendants. The princesses and the empresses consort were dressed in similar garments, and they participated in the imperial ceremonial as appropriate to their rank.

The empress was the head of the imperial women’s quarters, and she supervised the production of the imperial garments. The imperial wardrobe was one of the largest in the empire, with hundreds of seamstresses, weavers, and embroiderers working in the imperial textile workshops. The empress herself often participated in the production of certain garments, especially the vestments of the church, and the so-called “labarum” of the empress Theodora, wife of Justinian, became one of the most famous textile works of the Byzantine world.

The Aristocratic Wardrobe

The Courtiers

The courtiers of the imperial court, including the great aristocratic families, the high officials, and the senior members of the bureaucracy, wore elaborate clothing, but their garments were regulated by sumptuary laws. The sumptuary laws prescribed the materials, the colors, the decorations, and the styles of clothing that could be worn by each class, and the violation of these laws was a serious offense.

The senior officials, including the eunuch chamberlains, the great ministers, and the provincial governors, wore garments of silk, often embroidered with gold, and they were entitled to wear certain regalia, including the stemma, a crown of gold and gems, and the kabbadion, a long, close-fitting cloak. The less senior officials wore garments of finer wool or linen, with simpler decorations, and the lower officials wore garments of coarser materials.

The color of clothing was also regulated. The most prestigious color was purple, the famous Tyrian purple, which was reserved for the emperor and the most senior members of the imperial family. The next most prestigious colors were red, gold, and white, which were worn by the great officials and the aristocracy. The lower classes wore brown, gray, blue, and other less prestigious colors.

The Court Ladies

The court ladies, including the wives and daughters of the great officials, wore elaborate clothing, but their garments were also regulated. The most prestigious court ladies wore silks and brocades, often embroidered with gold, and they were entitled to wear certain jewelry, including necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. The less prestigious court ladies wore garments of finer wool or linen, with simpler decorations, and the lower classes wore garments of coarser materials.

The court ladies also wore elaborate head coverings, including veils, mantles, and tiaras. The most prestigious head covering was the stemma, a crown-like tiara, which was reserved for the empress and the most senior members of the imperial family. The court ladies also wore wigs and hairpieces, often made of the hair of slaves or of imported hair from the East.

The Peasant Wardrobe

Simple Garments

The peasant wardrobe was much simpler than the aristocratic wardrobe. The basic garments were the tunic, a long, loose-fitting shirt, and the cloak, a large piece of cloth draped over the body. The tunic was typically made of wool or linen, undyed or dyed in a single color, and it was the standard garment of the peasant class. The cloak was made of a heavier wool or felt, and it was worn in cold weather and for travel.

The peasant’s head covering was a simple cap or hood, made of wool or felt, and the peasant’s footwear was a simple sandal or boot, made of leather or woven plant fibers. The peasant’s clothing was produced at home, with the women of the household spinning, weaving, and sewing the garments from the wool or linen produced on the farm.

The peasant’s clothing was not, however, undifferentiated. The clothing of the peasant varied by region, by season, and by occupation. The peasants of the Balkans, for example, wore different garments from the peasants of Anatolia, and the peasants of the cities wore different garments from the peasants of the countryside. The clothing of the peasant also varied by life-cycle: the garments of a child, of a young man or woman, of a married person, and of an elderly person were all different.

Religious Vestments

The Priest’s Vestments

The religious vestments of the Byzantine church were a distinctive tradition, derived from the court dress of the late Roman Empire and developed over the centuries into a sophisticated system. The basic vestments of the priest included the sticharion, a long, close-fitting tunic; the epitrachelion, a stole worn around the neck; the zone, a belt; the epimanikia, cuffs; and the phelonion, a large cloak worn over the other vestments. Each vestment had a specific liturgical meaning, and each was decorated with crosses and other symbols.

The bishop’s vestments were more elaborate, including the omophorion, a long stole worn around the shoulders; the epigonation, a diamond-shaped cloth hanging from the right side; the mitre, a tall, crown-like hat; and the sakkos, a long, close-fitting tunic. The vestments of the patriarch of Constantinople were the most elaborate of all, and they included several items that were reserved for the patriarch alone.

Monastic Garments

The monastic garments were much simpler than the religious vestments of the clergy. The basic garment of the monk was the habit, a long, loose-fitting robe of black or dark brown wool, with a hood, a leather belt, and a leather strap. The monk also wore the kukulion, a hooded cape, and the analavos, a long strip of cloth worn over the shoulders. The monastic garments were not merely practical but symbolic, representing the renunciation of the world and the taking up of the cross.

The nuns wore a similar habit, with a veil covering the head and the shoulders, and a black or dark brown robe. The garments of the nuns were not significantly different from those of the monks, although the nuns were often distinguished by the use of a larger veil and a more elaborate belt.

The Materials of Byzantine Dress

Silk

Silk was the most prestigious material in the Byzantine wardrobe, and it was the basis of the imperial monopoly that lasted for more than six centuries. The Byzantine silk industry, which began in the sixth century under Emperor Justinian I, became one of the most important industries of the empire, and it was a major source of imperial revenue. The silk was produced in the imperial workshops, and it was reserved for the emperor, the imperial family, and the most senior members of the court.

The imperial silk workshops produced a wide variety of silks, including plain silks, embroidered silks, and brocades. The most famous were the imperial silks, which were used for the imperial vestments, the diplomatic gifts, and the most prestigious church vestments. The imperial silks were often decorated with Christian symbols, including the cross, the dove, and the peacock, and they were a major export of the empire.

The silk monopoly was eventually broken in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when the secrets of silk production were smuggled to the West and to the East. The Byzantine silk industry continued, but it was no longer the monopoly it had been, and the imperial workshops had to compete with private workshops and with imported silks from the East.

Wool and Linen

Wool and linen were the most common materials in the Byzantine wardrobe, and they were produced throughout the empire. The wool was produced from the sheep of the Balkan and Anatolian highlands, and the linen was produced from the flax of the lowland regions. The wool and linen were woven into a wide variety of fabrics, from the coarsest cloth for the peasant’s tunic to the finest cloth for the aristocrat’s garments.

The production of wool and linen was a major industry, and the workshops of Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Thebes, and Corinth were major centers of textile production. The cloth produced in these centers was exported throughout the empire and beyond, and the cloth of Thebes, in particular, was a major export. The cloth trade was a major source of revenue for the empire, and the regulation of the cloth trade was an important element of imperial policy.

Other Materials

In addition to silk, wool, and linen, the Byzantines used a variety of other materials in their clothing. The most important were cotton, which was imported from the East, and fur, which was used in the cold regions of the empire. The Byzantines also used leather for footwear and belts, and they used metal for buttons, buckles, and jewelry.

The jewelry of the Byzantines was particularly important. The imperial court maintained a large jewelry workshop, and the imperial jewelry included crowns, necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, brooches, and other items. The most prestigious imperial jewelry was set with pearls and precious stones, including emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and diamonds, and it was a major symbol of the imperial dignity. The jewelry of the aristocracy was also elaborate, although less exclusive than the imperial jewelry.

The Legacy of Byzantine Dress

Influence on Religious Vestments

The Byzantine tradition of dress has had a lasting influence on the religious vestments of the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The vestments of the Orthodox priest, bishop, and patriarch are direct descendants of the Byzantine vestments, and they preserve many of the same forms, materials, and symbolic meanings. The monastic habit of the Orthodox monk is also a direct descendant of the Byzantine monastic habit, and it has been preserved in the Orthodox monasteries of Greece, Russia, the Balkans, and the Holy Mountain to this day.

Influence on Western Fashion

The Byzantine tradition of dress also influenced the fashion of medieval and early modern Western Europe, especially through the medium of the Crusades. The Crusaders, who traveled through the Byzantine Empire on their way to the Holy Land, brought back silk garments and other luxuries that they had encountered in the East, and these influenced the development of Western European fashion. The most important influence of Byzantine dress on the West was through the court of the Norman kings of Sicily, which preserved many elements of Byzantine dress, and through the Italian city-states, especially Venice, which had close commercial and cultural ties with Constantinople.

Influence on National Costume

The Byzantine tradition of dress has also influenced the national costume of the modern nations of the Orthodox world. The traditional costume of Greece, with its long, flowing garments and elaborate head coverings, has many elements that are derived from the Byzantine tradition. The traditional costume of Russia, with its long, embroidered shirts and brightly colored sarafan, has been influenced by both the Byzantine and the peasant traditions. The national costumes of the Balkans, including those of Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania, also preserve many elements of the Byzantine tradition, although they have been modified by local influences.

Conclusion

Byzantine clothing was a complex and sophisticated system, reflecting the social hierarchy, the religious beliefs, and the cultural traditions of the empire. From the elaborate silks of the imperial court to the simple woolens of the peasantry, the clothes the Byzantines wore communicated their rank, their profession, and their identity. The tradition they established has had a lasting influence on the religious vestments of the Orthodox Churches, on the national costumes of the modern nations of the Orthodox world, and on the development of Western European fashion. The study of Byzantine clothing is, in this sense, a study of one of the most important and most enduring elements of the Byzantine inheritance.

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